Methods for diagnosing and treating prostate cancer

ABSTRACT

The invention is directed to a method of inhibiting prostate cancer cell proliferation using a substance that inhibits the activity of soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) protein. The invention also is directed to methods of diagnosing and prognosticating prostate cancer in a subject by evaluating sAC gene expression or sAC protein production in the subject.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under Grant Number NCIK08 CA 160657 awarded by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). TheGovernment has certain rights in this invention.

INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ELECTRONICALLY

Incorporated by reference in its entirety herein is a computer-readablenucleotide/amino acid sequence listing submitted concurrently herewithand identified as follows: One 4,225 Byte ASCII (Text) file named“715739_ST25.TXT,” created on Dec. 11, 2013.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy and the second leadingcause of death among men in the U.S. (Li et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta,1704: 87-102 (2004)). The National Cancer Institute (NCI) estimates thatin 2013, over 230,000 new cases of prostate cancer will be diagnosed,and over 29,000 men will die of prostate cancer in the United States.The prostate-specific antigen or PSA test continues to be widely used inthe early detection of prostate cancer. While the PSA test has resultedin the majority of prostate cancer cases being diagnosed in asymptomaticmen (Mettlin et al., Cancer, 83(8): 1679-1684 (1998a); Mettlin et al.,Cancer, 82(2): 249-251 (1998b); Humphrey et al., J. Urol., 155: 816-820(1996); and Grossfeld et al., Epidemiol. Rev., 23(1): 173-180 (2001)),the PSA test suffers from poor specificity, which can be as low as 33%when a PSA cut-off level of 2.6 ng/mL is used (Thompson et al., N. Engl.J. Med., 350: 2239-2246 (2004)), even though the sensitivity can be ashigh as 83%. The poor specificity of the PSA test is a direct result ofincreased secretion of PSA in other diseases of the prostate, such asbenign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatitis. Thus, an elevated PSAlevel indicates the need for additional screening typically in the formof needle biopsy. Ultimately, the results of needle biopsies lead to thediagnoses of prostate cancer. Over 1 million needle biopsies ofprostates are performed each year at a cost of about $1,500 each andmuch discomfort to the patient. However, less than 200,000 of theseresult in a diagnosis of prostate cancer. Therefore, the majority ofneedle biopsies are being performed needlessly.

Currently, several diagnostic markers are used clinically to distinguishbenign prostate tissue from malignant prostate tissue, including, forexample, alpha-methylacyl-CoA racemase (AMACR, p504s) (Zhou et al.,Amer. J. Surgical Pathology, 27(6): 772-778 (2003)) and the TMPRSS2-ERGfusion gene (Yu et al., Cancer Cell, 17(5): 443-54 (2010)). Thesemarkers, however, lack the specificity needed for consistently reliablediagnoses. Similarly, prognostic biomarkers such as the TMPRSS2-ERG genefusion, PTEN deletion, and SPINK1 overexpression also lack thespecificity to assess a wide range of prostate cancers, leaving asignificant number of prostate cancers without further prognosticinformation apart from calculating a cancer's Gleason score. Currentlythere are no known biomarkers that can indicate prostate cancers thathave invaded into the periprostatic soft tissue.

Thus, there is a need for non-invasive methods of diagnosing andprognosticating prostate cancer, as well as improved methods fortreating prostate cancer. The invention provides such methods.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides a method of inhibiting proliferation of prostatecancer cells, which comprises contacting prostate cancer cells with asubstance that inhibits that activity of a soluble adenylyl cyclase(sAC) protein, whereupon proliferation of the prostate cancer cells isinhibited.

The invention also provides a method for diagnosing prostate cancer in amale subject. The method comprises (a) obtaining a sample of cells fromthe prostate of a male subject, (b) assaying the sample for expressionof the sAC gene or production of the sAC protein, and (c) comparing thelevel of sAC gene expression or sAC protein production in the sample toa control, wherein overexpression of sAC gene or protein in the sampleas compared to the control is indicative of prostate cancer in the malesubject.

The invention provides a method for selecting a treatment option for aprostate cancer subject. The method comprises (a) obtaining a sample ofprostate cancer cells from a prostate cancer subject, (b) assaying thesample for expression of the sAC gene or production of the sAC protein,(c) comparing the level of sAC gene or protein expression in the sampleto a control, (d) prognosticating the prostate cancer in the subjectbased on the comparison performed in (c), (e) selecting a treatmentoption for the subject based on the subject's prognosis in (d), and (f)providing the treatment option to the subject.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is an image depicting data from Western blot analysis of sACexpression performed with lysates of the following untreated cell lines:PNT2, PC3 and LNCaP. FIG. 1B is an image depicting data from sACisoform-specific Western blot analysis in PC3 and LNCaP cell lines usingthe R40 antibody (recognizing only the “testicular” sAC isoform) and theR21 antibody (recognizing the sAC “testicular and “somatic” isoforms).

FIG. 2 is a graph which illustrates experimental data depicting theeffects of the sAC inhibitor KH7 on prostate cancer cell proliferation.Statistical analyses are presented for cellular cAMP content and cellnumber per dish (starting density: 150,000 cells/dish) 24 hours afterKH7 treatment. Values are the mean ±SEM (n=5-8). *p<0.05 vs. 0 μmol/LKH7.

FIG. 3A is an image depicting data from Western blot analysis of lysatesof LNCaP cells after treatment with sAC-specific or scrambled siRNA for72 hours (left panel) or after treatment with sAC-specific or scrambledshRNA for 72 hours (right panel). FIGS. 3B-D are graphs and images whichillustrate experimental data depicting the effects of siRNA or shRNAtransfection on cell proliferation (FIG. 3B), LDH activity in the cellculture medium (relative units (r.u.)) (FIG. 3C), and cleavage ofcaspase-3 (FIG. 3D). Values are the mean ±S.E. (n=5-6), *:p<0.05 versuscontrol or scrambled. The Western blot data are representative of fiveindependent experiments with similar results.

FIGS. 4A-4F are graphs and images which illustrate experimental datadepicting that inhibition or knockdown of sAC induces cell cycle arrestat the G₂ phase. FIGS. 4A-4C are graphs depicting statistical analysisof cell cycle phases carried out by flow cytometry with control LNCaPcells, with cells treated either with the sAC inhibitor KH7 (20mol/liter) or with the inactive analog KH7.15 (20 mol/liter) for 24hours, or with cells transfected with sAC-specific or scrambled siRNA.FIG. 4D includes a graph and image showing the time course for the G₂phase population and caspase-3 cleavage, respectively, as examined inLNCaP cells treated for 48 hours with the sAC inhibitor KH7. Values arethe mean ±S.E. (n=8-10), *: p<0.05 versus control or scrambled siRNA.FIGS. 4E and 4F are images depicting Western blot analysis of proteinscontrolling cell cycle progression through the G2/M and G1/S checkpointsperformed with lysates of control LNCaP cells or cells treated with KH7for 24 hours or after sAC knockdown (siRNA). Treatment conditions weresimilar to those described for FIGS. 4A-4D. All Western blot data arerepresentative of three to five independent experiments with similarresults.

FIGS. 5A-5E are graphs and images which illustrate experimental datadepicting that sAC controls proliferation and the cell cycle in aPKA-independent and EPAC-dependent manner. FIGS. 5A-5C are graphsdepicting statistical analyses of cell number per dish (FIG. 5A), LDHactivity in the cell culture medium (relative units (r.u.)) (FIG. 5B),and G2 phase populations (FIG. 5C). Treatments (all 24 hours) were asfollows: 20 mol/liter KH7, 20 mol/liter KH7.15, 100 mol/liter8-pCPT-cAMP (8-pCPT), 100 mol/liter N6-benzoyl-cAMP (6-Bnz), 3 mol/literH-89, or 100 mol/liter (Rp)-cAMP-S (RpcAMP). Values are the mean ±S.E.(n=8-11), *: p<0.05 versus the control; #: p<0.05 versus KH7. FIGS. 5Dand 5E are images depicting Western blot analysis of the active form ofRap1 (Rap1-GTP) and phosphorylated forms of B-Raf performed with LNCaPcell lysates. Treatment conditions were similar to those described forFIGS. 5A-5C. Treatment was performed for 18 hours. All Western blot dataare representative of four to six independent experiments with similarresults.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods for inhibiting proliferation of prostatecancer cells, diagnosing prostate cancer, and selecting treatmentoptions for prostate cancer patients based on the expression of thesoluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) protein. sAC is a soluble signalingenzyme involved in the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP) (see, e.g.,International Patent Application Publication WO 2001/085753 and U.S.Pat. No. 6,544,768). The expression of sAC has been observed inkeratinocytes, melanocytes, mononuclear cells, eccrine ducts, and nervesof human skin (Zippin et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 130: 1279-1287(2010)), as well as other regions of the body. cAMP mediates cellularresponses to nutritional conditions and extracellular signals and haslong been known to exert both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on cellgrowth and proliferation (Dumont et al., Trends Biochem. Sci., 14: 67-71(1989); and Rozengurt et al., Science, 234: 161-166 (1986)).

cAMP-dependent signaling has been shown to play a role in severalsignaling pathways that control cell proliferation and apoptosis;however, the specific effects of cAMP signaling on proliferation andapoptosis are not well established. For example, elevation of cellularcAMP content by stimulation of G protein-responsive transmembraneadenylyl cyclases (tmAC) or by treatment with cAMP analogues has beenshown to either induce or suppress proliferation in different cell types(see, e.g., Hochbaum et al., J. Biol. Chem., 283: 4464-4468 (2008);Misra and Pizzo, J. Cell. Biochem., 108: 998-1011 (2009); Hewer et al.,J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol., 50: 87-98 (2011); and Lucchi, et al., PLoS One,6: e20785 (2011)). Similarly, varied effects of cAMP signaling onapoptosis have been reported (see, e.g., Leone et al., Am. J. Physiol.Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 293: G673-681 (2007); Rudolph et al., J.Biol. Chem., 279: 14828-14834 (2004); Smith et al., Blood, 105: 308-316(2005); and Zhang and Insel, J. Biol. Chem., 279: 20858-20865 (2004)).These discrepancies may be due to differences in cell types orexperimental models, or to the lack of specificity regardingtmAC-dependent signals.

The role of sAC-dependent cAMP in the control of cellular proliferationis unknown. Aside from its cytosolic localization, sAC is also presentin the nucleus, where it controls the activity of the nuclearcAMP-response-element-binding protein (CREB) transcription factorthrough protein kinase A (PKA) dependent phosphorylation (see, e.g.,Zippin et al., FASEB J., 17: 82-84 (2003)). Recent studies also havedemonstrated that sAC migrates from the cytosol to the nucleus whenkeratinocytes and melanocytes transition from benign cells into cancers,such as squamous cell carcinoma of the skin and melanoma (see, e.g.,Zippin, et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 130: 1279-1287 (2010); and Magroet al., Arch. Dermatol., 148: 335-344 (2012)).

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of inhibitingproliferation of prostate cancer cells, which comprises contactingprostate cancer cells with a substance that inhibits that activity of asoluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) protein. The term “prostate cancer,”which is also synonymous with the term “prostate carcinoma,” refers tocancer that forms in tissues of the prostate. “Prostate cancer cells”refer to cells obtained or derived from a prostate cancer. In anotherembodiment, the substance that inhibits the activity of the sAC proteincan be used to inhibit proliferation of hyperplastic, but not malignant,prostate cells, such as, for example, high grade prostaticintraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH),which is also referred to in the art as benign enlargement of theprostate (BEP), adenofibromyomatous hyperplasia, and benign prostatichypertrophy.

The prostate cancer cells can be of any grade or stage, as determined byhistopathology and the Gleason score (discussed below), and/or inaccordance with the guidelines described in, e.g., Edge et al. (eds.),American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Staging Manual, 7^(th) Edition(2010), or the SEER Program Coding and Staging Manual, NIH PublicationNumber 13-5581, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services NationalCancer Institute (2013).

The prostate cancer cells can be contacted with any suitable substancethat inhibits the activity of a soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) protein.Such a substance also is referred to herein as a “sAC inhibitor.” Forexample, the sAC inhibitor can be any andenylyl cyclase inhibitor, manyof which are known in the art and are available from commercial sources,such as, for example, Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.). In one embodiment,the substance that inhibits sAC activity is a small molecule. The term“small molecule” refers to a non-biological (i.e., non-protein,non-nucleic acid) substance or compound having a molecular weight ofless than about 1,000 g/mol. Small molecule inhibitors of adenylylcyclases include, for example, cyclopentyladenine monomethanesulfonate(C4479), 2′,5′-dideoxyadenosine (D7408), 2′,5′-dideoxyadenosine3′-triphosphate tetrasodium salt (D0939),cis-N-(2-phenylcyclopentyl)-azacyclotridec-1-en-2-amine hydrochloride(MDL-12,330A hydrochloride or M182),2′/3′-O-(N-methylanthraniloyl)guanosine-5′-(γ-thio)triphosphatetriethylammonium salt solution (M6317), and(E)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-ylthio)-N′-(5-bromo-2-hydroxybenzylidene)propanehydrazide(KH7). A preferred small molecule that inhibits the activity of the sACprotein is(E)-2-(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-ylthio)-N′-(5-bromo-2-hydroxybenzylidene)propanehydrazide(KH7).

In another embodiment, the substance that inhibits sAC activity is aninterfering RNA molecule. RNA interference (RNAi) refers to a biologicalprocess in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression, typically bycausing the destruction of specific mRNA molecules. The RNAi moleculecan be a small interfering RNA (siRNA), a short hairpin miRNA (shMIR), amicroRNA (miRNA), or an antisense nucleic acid. In one embodiment, thesAC inhibitor desirably is a siRNA that specifically targets a geneencoding the sAC protein. RNAi molecules can be generated using anysuitable method known in the art (see, e.g., Seyhan et al., RNA, 11(5):837-846 (2005); Huang et al., Nat. Biotechnol., 31(4): 350-356 (2013);Sui et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99: 5515-20 (2002); Brummelkampet al., Science, 296: 550-3 (2002); Paul et al., Nature Biotechnology,20: 505-8 (2002); Lee et al., Nature Biotechnology, 20: 500-5 (2002);and Castanotto et al., RNA, 8: 1454-60 (2002)).

In a preferred embodiment, prostate cancer cells are contacted with thesubstance that inhibits the activity of the sAC protein by administeringthe sAC inhibitor directly to a male prostate cancer subject. When thesAC inhibitor is an RNAi molecule, the RNAi molecule can be provided tothe male prostate cancer subject using a vector. The vector can be, forexample, a plasmid, a cosmid, a viral vector (e.g., retroviral oradenoviral), or a phage. Suitable vectors and methods of vectorpreparation are well known in the art (see, e.g., Sambrook et al.,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 4th ed., Cold Spring HarborPress, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. 2012). The sAC inhibitor, or vectorencoding the sAC inhibitor, desirably is present in a composition.Preferably, the composition is a pharmaceutically acceptable (e.g.,physiologically acceptable) composition, which comprises a carrier,preferably a pharmaceutically acceptable (e.g., physiologicallyacceptable) carrier, and the sAC inhibitor or vector encoding the sACinhibitor. Any suitable carrier can be used within the context of theinvention, and such carriers are well known in the art. The choice ofcarrier will be determined, in part, by the particular site to which thecomposition may be administered and the particular method used toadminister the composition. The composition optionally can be sterile.The composition can be frozen or lyophilized for storage andreconstituted in a suitable sterile carrier prior to use. Thecomposition can be generated in accordance with conventional techniquesdescribed in, e.g., Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy,21st Edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa. (2001).

The composition comprising the sAC inhibitor can be administered to amale prostate cancer subject using standard administration techniques,including oral, intravenous, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, pulmonary,transdermal, intramuscular, intranasal, buccal, sublingual, orsuppository administration. The composition preferably is suitable forparenteral administration. The term “parenteral,” as used herein,includes intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, rectal, andintraperitoneal administration. More preferably, the composition isadministered to a mammal using peripheral systemic delivery byintravenous, intraperitoneal, or subcutaneous injection.

Once administered to a male prostate cancer subject, the sAC inhibitorinhibits proliferation of prostate cancer cells. In this respect, thesAC inhibitor induces a therapeutic effect in the male prostate cancersubject and treats the prostate cancer. As used herein, the terms“treatment,” “treating,” and the like refer to obtaining a desiredpharmacologic and/or physiologic effect. Preferably, the effect istherapeutic, i.e., the effect partially or completely cures a diseaseand/or adverse symptom attributable to the disease. To this end, theinventive method comprises administering a “therapeutically effectiveamount” of the substance that inhibits the activity of the sAC protein.A “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amount effective, atdosages and for periods of time necessary, to achieve a desiredtherapeutic result. The therapeutically effective amount may varyaccording to factors such as the disease state, age, and weight of theindividual, and the ability of the sAC inhibitor to elicit a desiredresponse in the individual. For example, a therapeutically effectiveamount of the sAC inhibitor of the invention is an amount whichdecreases sAC protein bioactivity in a human.

The sAC inhibitor may be administered alone or in combination with otherprostate cancer treatments or drugs (e.g., as an adjuvant). In thisrespect, the sAC inhibitor can be used in combination with, for example,active surveillance, surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy,chemotherapy, biologic therapy, bisphosphonate therapy, monoclonalantibody therapy, cryosurgery, high-intensity focused ultrasound, and/orproton beam radiation therapy.

The invention also provides a method for diagnosing prostate cancer in amale subject. The method comprises (a) obtaining a sample of cells fromthe prostate of a male subject, (b) assaying the sample for expressionof the sAC gene or production of the sAC protein, and (c) comparing thelevel of sAC gene expression or sAC protein production in the sample toa control, wherein overexpression of sAC gene or overproduction of sACprotein in the sample as compared to the control is indicative ofprostate cancer in the male subject. The sample of cells desirably isobtained via biopsy, surgical excision (e.g., via radicalprostatectomy), or fine needle aspiration (FNA). As used herein,“sample” or “biopsy” refers to a biological specimen removed from asubject for diagnostic analysis. “Fine needle aspiration” refers to adiagnostic procedure used to investigate superficial lumps or masses byinserting a thin, hollow needle is inserted into the mass for samplingof cells. Typically, the sample comprises a biopsy of a prostate regioncontaining or suspected of containing hyperproliferative cells. Thesample may be obtained via needle biopsy transrectally ortransperineally. Typically, the sample will be formalin-fixed and/orparaffin-embedded for ease of handling.

The presence or absence of sAC gene expression in a cell sample can bedetermined and evaluated (e.g., assayed) using any suitable method formeasuring gene expression. Such methods are known in the art andinclude, for example, PCR, quantitative RT-PCR, real-time PCR, RNAamplification, in situ hybridization, nucleic acid microarrays, serialanalysis of gene expression (SAGE) (Velculescu et al., Science, 270:484-487 (1995)), and Northern blot hybridization.

The presence or absence of sAC protein production in a cell sample canbe determined and evaluated (e.g., assayed) using any suitable proteindetection method. Such methods are known in the art and include, forexample, ELISA, radioimmunoassay (RIA), FACS, immunohistochemistry,immunocytochemistry, and Western blot hybridization. In one embodiment,the sample is assayed for sAC protein expression usingimmunohistochemistry by staining the sample with an antibody againstsAC. The terms “staining” or “immunostaining,” as used herein, refer to(i) contacting a sample suspected to contain the sAC protein with anantibody specific for the sAC protein, extracellular or intracellular,under conditions in which a stable antigen-antibody complex can formbetween the antibody and the protein in the sample, and (ii) detectingany antigen-antibody complex formed in step (i) using any suitable meansknown in the art, wherein the detection of a complex indicates thepresence of sAC protein in the sample.

The antibody directed against sAC (i.e., “anti-sAC antibody”) can be anyantibody, or antigen-binding fragment thereof, that binds to sAC. Theantibody against sAC can be a polyclonal antibody, a monoclonalantibody, a chimeric antibody, a single chain antibody, or a Fabfragment that binds to sAC. For example, the antibody against sAC can bea monoclonal antibody directed against a single sAC epitope, acombination of monoclonal antibodies directed against different epitopesof a single sAC antigenic component, monoclonal antibodies directedtowards epitopes of different sAC antigenic components, polyclonalantibodies directed towards the same sAC antigen, or polyclonalantibodies directed towards different sAC antigens.

The antibody can target any epitope of any splice variant of sAC. sAChas several splice variants, including a 48 kDa variant and a 187 kDavariant (see, Buck et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 79-84 (1999);and Jaiswal et al., J. Biol. Chem., 276: 31698-31708 (2001)). Additionalsplice variants may also exist. Amino amino acid sequences of fulllength sAC (sACfl) and truncated sAC (sACt) are disclosed in U.S. PatentApplication Publication 2013/0065246. An antibody or antigen-bindingfragment thereof directed against sAC can be prepared using any suitablemethod. For example, a polyclonal antibody can be prepared by immunizinga host animal, e.g., by injection, with the sAC polypeptide or aderivative (e.g., fragment or fusion protein) thereof. A monoclonalantibody can be prepared using hybridoma methodology (see, e.g., Kohlerand Milstein, Nature, 256: 495-497 (1975)), trioma methodology, humanB-cell hybridoma methodology (see, e.g., Kozbor et al., Immunol. Today,4: 72 (1983); and Cote et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 80: 2026-2030(1983)), the EBV hybridoma technique (see, .g., Cole et al., “TheEBV-hybridoma technique and its application to human lung cancer” inMonoclonal Antibodies and Cancer Therapy, Alan R. Liss, Inc., pp. 77-96(1985)), or by CDR grafting (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,585,089,5,693,761, 5,693,762, and 5,225,539). A chimeric antibody can beprepared, for example, by splicing the genes from a mouse antibodyspecific for the sAC polypeptide together with genes from a humanantibody of appropriate biological activity (Morrison et al., J.Bacteria, 159: 870 (1984); Neuberger et al., Nature, 312: 604-608(1984); and Takeda et al., Nature, 314: 452-454 (1985)). Single chainantibodies can be prepared using methods disclose in, for example, U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,476,786, 5,132,405, and 4,946,778.

An antibody fragment which binds the sAC protein can be generated in anysuitable technique known in the art. Examples of antibody fragmentsinclude, but are not limited to, a F(ab′)2 fragment, which can beproduced by pepsin digestion of the antibody molecule, a Fab′ fragment,which can be generated by reducing the disulfide bridges of the F(ab′)2fragment, and a Fab fragment, which can be generated by treating anantibody with papain and a reducing agent.

The antibody against sAC, as bound to sAC present in the sample, isdetected so as to obtain or discern the sAC staining pattern. Thedetection of the antibody against sAC can be accomplished by anysuitable technique, including but not limited to enzyme-mediated (e.g.,alkaline phosphatase, horseradish peroxidase, etc.) orfluorophore-mediated (e.g., FITC, TRITC, AMCA, etc.) techniques. In oneembodiment, antibody binding is detected by detecting a label on theantibody against sAC. In another embodiment, a primary antibody isdetected by detecting binding of a secondary antibody or reagent to theprimary antibody, wherein, in a further embodiment, the secondaryantibody is labeled and detected.

Any suitable label can be utilized so as to obtain or discern the sACstaining pattern. Suitable labels include, but are not limited to,enzyme-based, fluorescent, chemiluminescent, radioactive, and dyemolecules. Other reagents and materials can be utilized to obtain ordiscern the sAC staining pattern, such as dewaxing components to dewaxparaffin-embedded samples, pretreatment and blocking reagents,amplification reagents, wash buffers, blocking reagents, and co-stainingreagents.

Several anti-sAC antibodies have been identified and include, forexample, R5, R6.2, R7, R14, R21, R33, R37, R40, R41, R47.1, R52, R53,R54, and R59 (see, e.g., Kamenetsky, “Mammalian Cells Possess Multiple,Distinctly Regulated cAMP Signaling Cascades,” Ph.D. Dissertation, WeillMedical College of Cornell University, Publication No. AAT 3251733[ProQuest Document ID 1276395511] (2006)). The target sAC epitopes ofthese antibodies are provided in SEQ ID NOS: 1-8. Preferred antibodiesinclude the R21 antibody, which is a mouse monoclonal antibody directedagainst amino acids 203-216 of human sACfl protein (Zippin et al., J.Invest. Dermatol., 130(5): 1279-1287 (2010)), the R40 antibody, and theR52 antibody, which binds an epitope comprising SEQ ID NO: 9.

Overexpression of the sAC gene or protein in the sample from the malesubject as compared to the control sample is indicative of prostatecancer in the male subject. The sAC gene is “overexpressed” or the sACprotein is “overproduced” when the sAC gene is expressed above normallevels or the sAC protein is produced above normal levels, respectively.Normal expression of the sAC gene or normal production of the sACprotein is the expression of sAC gene or production of the sAC protein,respectively, in a non-diseased subject, or non-diseased tissue from themale subject suspected of having prostate cancer.

Overexpression of the sAC gene or overproduction of the sAC protein canbe detected by comparing the level of sAC gene expression or sAC proteinproduction, respectively, in the sample to a control (e.g., a positiveor negative control). A control can be provided, for example, bymeasuring the expression of sAC gene or production of sAC protein in ahuman subject or sample known to be negative for prostate cancer or arelated condition, or in a non-diseased tissue of the male subjectsuspected of having prostate cancer (negative control), or known to bepositive for prostate cancer or a related condition (positive control).The control also can be provided by a previously determined standardprepared by any suitable method (e.g., an expression profile of sAC geneor production profile of sAC protein generated from a population ofsubjects known to be positive or negative for prostate cancer or arelated condition). When comparing the expression of sAC gene orproduction of sAC protein to a negative control, overexpression oroverproduction can be defined as any level of expression or productiongreater than the level of expression or production, respectively, of thecontrol (e.g., 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 5-fold, 10-fold, 20-fold, 50-fold,100-fold, or even greater expression as compared to the negativecontrol).

The invention also provides a method for selecting a treatment optionfor a prostate cancer subject. The method comprises (a) obtaining asample of prostate cancer cells from a prostate cancer subject, (b)assaying the sample for expression of the sAC gene or production of thesAC protein, (c) comparing the level of sAC gene expression or sACprotein production in the sample to a control, (d) prognosticating theprostate cancer in the subject based on the comparison performed in (c),(e) selecting a treatment option for the subject based on the subject'sprognosis in (d), and (f) providing the treatment option to the subject.Descriptions of the prostate cancer cell sample and the assays for sACgene expression and sAC protein production set forth above in connectionwith other embodiments of the invention also are applicable to thosesame aspects of the aforesaid method for selecting a treatment optionfor a prostate cancer subject.

The term “prognosticate,” as used herein, refers to predicting theoutcome of a patient's disease state. In the context of the inventivemethod of selecting a treatment option for a prostate cancer patient, acontrol can be provided, for example, by measuring the expression of sACgene or production of sAC protein in a collection of human subjectsknown to be positive for prostate cancer of various stages. The controlalso can be provided by a previously determined standard of sAC geneexpression or sAC protein production at various prostate cancer stagesthat is prepared by any suitable method (e.g., an expression profile ofsAC gene or production profile of sAC protein generated from apopulation of subjects known to be positive for different stages ofprostate cancer). In this manner, a clinician can compare the prostatecancer subject's sample against multiple different prostate cancerstages to more accurately determine the stage and aggressiveness of theprostate cancer subject's disease.

Prognosticating prostate cancer in the context of the inventive methodfurther comprises calculating the Gleason score for the prostate cancercell sample. The Gleason score (or Gleason Grading System), is assignedto a prostate cancer based upon its pathology. A higher Gleason scoreindicates a more aggressive cancer and poorer prognosis. Determining theGleason score first involves low microscopic examination of a particularprostate cancer sample for specific tumor patterns, which are designatedpatterns 1-5 and are described in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Patterns for Use in Determining Gleason Score Prostate TumorPattern Characteristics 1 cancerous prostate closely resembles normalprostate tissue; glands are small, well-formed, and closely packed;corresponds to a well differentiated carcinoma 2 tissue still haswell-formed glands, but they are larger than the normal glands;corresponds to a well differentiated carcinoma. 3 tissue still hasrecognizable glands, but the cells are darker; at high magnification,some of these glands are beginning to invade the surrounding tissue orhaving an infiltrative pattern; corresponds to a well differentiatedcarcinoma. 4 tissue has few recognizable glands; many cells are invadingthe surrounding tissue in neoplastic clumps; corresponds to a moderatelyor poorly differentiated carcinoma. 5 tissue does not have any or only afew recognizable glands; often just sheets of cells throughout thesurrounding tissue; corresponds to a poorly differentiated carcinoma

The Gleason score is calculated as the sum of two numbers: (1) the scoreof the most common pattern and (2) the score of the second most commonpattern. The Gleason Score ranges from 2 to 10, with a score of 10having the worst prognosis. A Gleason Grade is then assigned based onthe Gleason score, which classifies the cancer into a low, intermediate,or high grade. In this respect, a low grade tumor has a Gleason score of6 or less, an intermediate grade tumor has a Gleason score of 7, and ahigh grade tumor has a Gleason score of 8-10.

If prognostic tests, such as the Gleason score, indicate that theprostate cancer in the subject may have spread within the prostate or toother parts of the body (i.e., metastasized), additional tests can beperformed to determine the exact stage of the cancer so that the mosteffective treatment option for that stage is selected. Additional testsand procedures that can be performed to accurately stage a prostatecancer include, but are not limited to, bone scans, magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI), CAT scan (CT scan), pelvic lymphadenectomy, and seminalvesicle biopsy. The prostate cancer can then be classified as Stage I,Stage II, Stage III, or Stage IV in accordance with the guidelinesdescribed in, e.g., Edge et al. (eds.), American Joint Committee onCancer (AJCC) Staging Manual, 7^(th) Edition (2010), or the SEER ProgramCoding and Staging Manual, NIH Publication Number 13-5581, U.S.Department of Health and Human Services National Cancer Institute(2013).

Once the prognosis of the prostate cancer subject has been determined,the inventive method comprises selecting a treatment option for thesubject based on the subject's prognosis and providing the treatmentoption to the subject. Accurate determination of the stage of prostatecancer in a subject allows for better selection and application oftherapeutic methods. Knowledge about the exact stage of prostate canceraffecting a subject allows a clinician to select therapies or treatmentsthat are most appropriate and useful for that subject, while avoidingtherapies that are nonproductive or even counterproductive.

The treatment option selected can comprise any suitable therapeuticregimen or pharmaceutical agent known in the art that shows efficacy intreating prostate cancer of any stage, including but not limited toactive surveillance, surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy,chemotherapy, biologic therapy, bisphosphonate therapy, monoclonalantibody therapy, cryosurgery, high-intensity focused ultrasound, and/orproton beam radiation therapy (see, e.g., Horwich, A., Ann. Oncol., 17Suppl. 10: x211-213 (2006); and Postma R., Ann. Oncol., 17 Suppl. 10:x207-210 (2006)). For example, the current standard of care for stage Iprostate cancer can include active surveillance, radical prostatectomy(usually with pelvic lymphadenectomy), external-beam radiation therapy,internal radiation therapy, a clinical trial of high-intensity focusedultrasound, and/or a clinical trial of cryosurgery. Standard of care forstage II, III, and IV prostate cancer include many of the treatmentsemployed in stage I prostate cancer, but can further include proton beamradiation therapy, treatments to control the cancer and lessen urinarysymptoms (e.g., hormone therapy, internal radiation therapy,transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), and new types ofradiation therapy), and treatments to control pain from cancer that hasmetastasized to the bone (e.g., pain medication, external-beamradiation, and targeted therapy with a monoclonal antibody).

The following examples further illustrate the invention but, of course,should not be construed as in any way limiting its scope.

EXAMPLE 1

This example demonstrates that sAC protein is overproduced in prostatecancer cells.

The sAC gene expression, sAC protein subcellular localization, and sACprotein distribution in both benign and malignant prostate tissuesamples were examined. Immunohistochemical staining using a mousemonoclonal sAC antibody (R21) was performed on both tumor and benigntissue from 12 radical prostatectomy specimens. Two tumors werewell-differentiated (Gleason score 6), 7 were moderately differentiated(Gleason score 7), and 3 were poorly differentiated (Gleason score8-10).

Briefly, five micron-thick sections of the formalin-fixedparaffin-embedded tissue were deparaffinized and stained using a BondIII Autostainer (Leica Microsystems, Buffalo Grove, Ill.) and themanufacturer's Heat-Induced Epitope Retrieval 1 protocol with suppliedreagents. Mouse monoclonal R21 sAC antibody (CEPBiotech, Inc, R21-IHC,Tamarac, Fla.) was used at a dilution of 1:750 as previously described(Zippin, et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 130: 1279-1287 (2010); and Magroet al., Arch. Dermatol., 148: 335-344 (2012)), followed by treatment ina post primary alkaline phosphatase step for 20 minutes for signalamplification, application of 3,3′-diaminobenzidine for 10 minutes, andfinally washing and mounting with a coverslip.

All slides were evaluated in a non-blinded fashion by an experiencedurologic pathologist. Test prostate cases were examined by twophysicians prior to assessment of the study cases to determine therelative staining intensity categories of weak (1+), moderate (2+), andstrong (3+). A histology scoring system (H-score (Barnes et al., Br. J.Cancer., 74: 445-51 (1996)), which takes into account the percent oftissue staining for each intensity level, was then used to quantify theamount of staining. The H-score is calculated using the followingequation: H-score=(% of cells staining “1+”)×1+(% of cells staining“2+”)×2+(% of cells staining “3+”)×3. Thus, the H-score ranges from 0 to300. Localization of staining within the cell (i.e., cytoplasmiccompartment, apical/luminal border, or nuclear compartment) was recordedfor each case. Nuclear staining was positive when sAC-specific DABprecipitate (brown) overlaid and obscured hematoxylin stained (blue)nuclei. Cytoplasmic staining was defined as sAC-specific DAB precipitatenot overlaying nuclei. Variations in staining distribution (i.e., tissuenear the periphery (“capsule”) of the prostate versus more interiorregions) were also recorded for each case.

The results of the sAC gene expression/sAC protein production analysisare shown in Table 2. All prostatic glands, whether benign or malignant,showed at least weak (1+) cytoplasmic staining for sAC. When the levelof sAC gene expression/sAC protein production was analyzed, prostatecancer glands showed significantly increased sAC staining as compared tobenign glands (H-score 189.2 vs. 144.3, respectively; p<0.01).

TABLE 2 sAC Gene Expression/sAC Protein Production Analysis ResultsBenign* Malignant* P-values Expression/Production Level Weak (1+) 59.6%28.3% 0.022 Moderate (2+) 36.6% 54.2% 0.11 Strong (3+)  3.8% 17.5% 0.028H-score (mean) 144.3 189.2 0.0070 Intensity distribution Increasedstaining at “capsular” edge 3/12 8/9 0.0092 Localization Cytoplasmic 100%  100% 1 Apical/luminal border 12.4%  6.8% 0.063 Nuclear  7.8% 2.6% 0.056 *n = 12 for both groups, excepting analysis of “Intensitydistribution” for malignant tissue (n = 9)

sAC upregulation was observed at the leading edge of prostate cancernear the prostatic “capsule” and in extraprostatic foci of tumorreleative to the center of the tumor, but no significant increase instaining was observed as the tumor invaded deeper into the prostategland. In contrast, benign glands near the prostatic “capsule” typicallydid not show any upregulation of sAC when compared to benign glandsdeeper within the prostate.

Analysis of subcellular distribution of sAC revealed diffuse cytoplasmicstaining for sAC in all cells. Some glands also showed more intensestaining of nuclei or the apical/luminal border of the cells.Statistical analysis did not reveal any significant difference in thesubcellular distribution pattern of sAC between benign prostatic tissueand tumor samples.

The results of this example demonstrate that sAC protein production iselevated in prostate cancer.

EXAMPLE 2

This example demonstrates that sAC protein is overproduced in prostatecancer cells.

Prostate cancer cases were retrospectively identified from the databaseof the Division of Surgical Pathology, Weill Cornell Medical College.Tissue microarrays (TMAs) were constructed from the archivalformalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue samples using 0.6 mm cores,with each area represented in triplicate. When possible, areas of benignprostatic tissue, high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia(HGPIN), and invasive prostatic adenocarcinoma were all sampled fromeach case; however, in some cases not all tissue types were present forsampling/evaluation.

Immunohistochemical staining for three sAC antibodies (R21, R40, andR52) was performed on the TMA slides. The TMAs included 50 samples ofbenign prostatic tissue, 35 samples of HGPIN, 65 samples of localizedprostatic adenocarcinoma, and 25 samples of neuroendocrine prostatecancer (NEPC), castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), and/ormetastatic prostatic adenocarcinoma. Of the 65 localized prostatecancers, 50 were organ-confined (pathologic stage T2), and 15 showedextraprostatic extension and/or seminal vesicle invasion (pathologicstage T3a or T3b). Ten of the localized prostate cancers were welldifferentiated (Gleason score 6), 50 were moderately differentiated(Gleason score 7), and 5 were poorly differentiated (Gleason score8-10).

5-μm-thick sections of TMA block containing the formalin-fixed,paraffin-embedded tissue cores were deparaffinized and stained using aBOND-III Autostainer (Leica Microsystems, Buffalo Grove, Ill.) andsupplied reagents unless otherwise specified. For the R21 and R52antibodies, antigen retrieval was performed using the manufacturer'sHeat-Induced Epitope Retrieval 1 protocol. For the R40 antibody, noantigen retrieval was performed. Mouse anti-sAC monoclonal antibodies(CEP Biotech, Inc., Tamarac, Fla.) for R21, R40, and R52 were used atdilutions of 1:750, 1:75, and 1:250, respectively, as describedpreviously (Zippin, et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 130: 1279-1287 (2010);and Magro et al., Arch. Dermatol., 148: 335-344 (2012)). Incubation withthe antibodies was followed by treatment in a post-primary alkalinephosphatase step for 20 minutes for signal amplification, application of3,3′-diaminobenzidine for 10 minutes, and finally washing and mountingwith a coverslip.

All slides were evaluated in a semi-blinded fashion by an experiencedurologic pathologist. Test prostate cases were examined by twophysicians prior to assessment of the study cases to determine therelative staining intensity categories of weak (1+), moderate (2+), andstrong (3+). The H-score (Barnes et al., supra) was calculated asdescribed in Example 1 and used to quantify the amount of staining.Localization of the staining within the cell (cytoplasmic compartment,apical/luminal border, or nuclear compartment) was recorded for eachcase. Nuclear staining was positive when the sAC-specificdiaminobenzidine precipitate (brown) overlaid and obscuredhematoxylin-stained (blue) nuclei. In some cases, only the nucleolishowed reactivity. Cytoplasmic staining was defined as sAC-specificdiaminobenzidine precipitate not overlaying nuclei. For the R40antibody, the percentage of positive nuclear staining (including thosewith only nucleolar staining) was also recorded. The results of sACstaining with R21, R40, and R52 antibodies are shown in Tables 3, 4, and5, respectively.

TABLE 3 R21 Immunohistochemical Analysis of sAC Expression/ProductionH-score (mean) Benign/Malignant Benign 135.2 HGPIN 152.9 Malignant 192.1Within Tumor Groups pT2 172.1 pT3 210.4 Gleason 6 152.7 Gleason 7 171.9Gleason 8-10 195.0 Metastatic Prostate Cancer Benign 135.2 LocalizedProstate Cancer 192.1 Met/CRPC/NEPC 185.6

R21 staining was invariably cytoplasmic with occasional accentuation ofluminal border and/or nuclear staining. Malignant tumors showedsignificantly stronger staining as compared to benign prostatic tissue.High grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN), a proposedprecursor to cancer and/or marker of cancer risk, showed increasedstaining over benign prostatic tissue but less staining than invasivecarcinoma. Within the tumor groups, higher grade and higher stage tumorshad a higher H-score (i.e., more likely to have 3+ staining). Metastaticprostate cancers, castration resistant prostate cancers (CRPC), andneuroendocrine prostate cancers (NEPC) exhibited variable staining thatwas not definitively increased over localized prostate cancer, but wasgreater than benign prostatic tissue.

TABLE 4 R40 Immunohistochemical Analysis of sAC Expression/ProductionH-score (mean) Benign/Malignant Benign 53.6 HGPIN 64.2 Malignant 82.8Within Tumor Groups pT2 81.1 pT3 83.7 Gleason 6 80.9 Gleason 7 84.5Gleason 8-10 79.2 Metastatic Prostate Cancer Benign 53.6 LocalizedProstate Cancer 82.8 Met/CRPC/NEPC 50.4

R40 staining was cytoplasmic and rarely 3+ in intensity, with most cases(benign or malignant) showing 0 or 1+ staining. No appreciable luminalaccentuation and/or nuclear positivity was observed. Within the tumorgroups, higher grade and higher stage tumors had similar H-scores.Metastatic prostate cancers, castration resistant prostate cancers(CRPC), and neuroendocrine prostate cancers (NEPC) showed decreasedexpression/production of R40 as compared to the increased frequency ofnegative (0+) staining in localized prostate cancer.

TABLE 5 R52 Immunohistochemical Analysis of sAC Expression/ProductionH-score Mean % (mean) positive nuclei Benign/Malignant Benign 42.0 1.3HGPIN 45.7 2.2 Malignant 62.7 5.9 Within Tumor Groups pT2 60.8 3.4 pT368.2 7.5 Gleason 6 50.1 2.3 Gleason 7 59.9 3.6 Gleason 8-10 69.1 8.9Metastatic Prostate Cancer Benign 42.0 1.3 Localized Prostate Cancer62.7 5.9 Met/CRPC/NEPC 72.4 13.6

R52 staining was predominantly cytoplasmic and generally absent or weak(i.e., 0 or 1+ staining with occasional 2+ and rarely 3+ staining).Malignant tumors showed a slight increase in cytoplasmic staining overbenign prostatic tissue. Staining with the R52 antibody revealed rarepositive nuclei in benign cells and an increased percentage ofsAC-positive nuclei, including some nucleolar positivity, in malignanttumors. Within the tumor groups, higher grade and higher stage tumorsexhibited similar cytoplasmic H-scores but a higher percentage ofsAC-positive nuclei (including nucleolar positivity). Metastaticprostate cancers, castration resistant prostate cancers (CRPC), andneuroendocrine prostate cancers (NEPC) showed an increased percentage ofsAC-positive nuclei (including nucleolar positivity) compared tolocalized prostate cancer.

The results of this example demonstrate that sAC protein production iselevated in prostate cancer.

EXAMPLE 3

This example demonstrates a method of inhibiting proliferation ofprostate cancer cells by suppressing the activity of soluble adenylylcyclase (sAC) protein.

The androgen-sensitive LNCaP (ATCC-Nr. CRL-1740D) human prostatecarcinoma cell line, the androgen-insensitive PC3 (ATCC-Nr. CRL-1435D)human prostate carcinoma cell line, and neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y(ATCC-Nr. CRL-2266) were purchased from the American Type CultureCollection, and human normal prostate epithelial cell line PNT2 waspurchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Cat. Nr. 95012613). Cells were expandedand frozen in aliquots within four weeks of purchase. Cells were thawedand cultured for no more than three further passages. PNT2 cells werecultured in medium RPMI1640 supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum,glutamine and antibiotics. All other cells were cultured in Dulbecco'smodified Eagle's medium that was supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum,glutamine, and antibiotics. The cells (1.5×10⁵) were seeded in culturemedium with 2% fetal calf serum 24 hours prior to each experiment.

Production of sAC protein in the LNCaP and PC3 prostate carcinoma celllines was analyzed by Western blot. In particular, cells were lysed inLaemmli buffer containing 2% SDS, 10% glycerol, 5% 2-mercaptoethanol,0.002% bromphenol blue, and 0.0625 mol/liter Tris-HCl. Equal amounts oftotal proteins were separated on SDS-polyacrylamide gels and transferredto a nitrocellulose membrane. The following primary antibodies wereused: sAC (clones R21 and R40; provided by Dr. J. Buck) and actin(Millipore, Billerica, Mass.). After incubation with peroxidase-linkedand horseradish peroxidase-labeled secondary antibodies, specific bandswere visualized by chemiluminescence using an ECL Plus kit. Equivalentsample loading was confirmed by stripping the membranes with RESTORE™Western blot stripping buffer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford,Ill.), followed by treatment with anti-actin antibody.

The LNCaP and PC3 prostate carcinoma cell lines exhibited increasedproduction of sAC as compared to normal human PNT2 prostate epithelialcells, as shown in FIG. 1A. Furthermore, analyzing isoform-specificexpression by using the R40 antibody, which recognize only the“testicular” isoform, and the R21 antibody, which recognizes both the“testicular and “somatic” isoforms (see Farrell et al., PLoS ONE, 22:e3251 (2008)), revealed weak expression of the “testicular” isoform inboth cell lines, as shown in FIG. 1B, suggesting that the “somatic”isoform is a predominant form of sAC in these cells.

Treatment of PC3 and LNCaP cells with the selective sAC inhibitor KH7was used to suppress the activity of sAC. Previous studies demonstratedthat KH7 inhibits sAC in various cell types at a concentration range of10-30 μmol/L, but has no effect on tmAC and soluble guanylyl cyclase upto 100 μmol/L (Hess et al., Dev. Cell., 9: 249-259 (2005)). To furtherdiscriminate against possible nonspecific sAC-independent effects ofKH7, an inactive analogue of KH7, KH7.15 (Wu et al., Nat. Neurosci., 9:1257-1264 (2006)), was used.

Treatment with KH7 reduced the intracellular cAMP content and suppressedcell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner in both cell lines with amaximal effect at 20 μmol/L, as shown in FIG. 2. Analysis of cell growthand death following treatment with 20 μmol/L KH7 for 48 hours revealedthat the anti-proliferative effect of sAC inhibition was accompanied bythe release of LDH and apoptosis, as measured by a rise in the subG1population and cleavage of caspase-3. In contrast, treatment with theinactive analogue KH7.15 had no effect, suggesting that the observedeffects of KH7 treatment were sAC-dependent.

To further substantiate the role of sAC in cell growth and death, thesAC gene expression/sAC protein production was suppressed in LNCaPcells. Two different methods of sAC knockdown, lipofectamine-basedtransfection with sAC-specific siRNA or adenoviral transfection withshRNA, were used to further rule out the possibility of KH7 off-targeteffects. For lipofectamine-based siRNA transfection, LNCaP cells weretreated with siRNA duplexes that consisted of four different predesignedsequences targeting the human sAC mRNA sequence (GenBank Accession No.NM_001167749; Dharmacon, Lafayette, Colo.; catalogue no. L-006353-00,).In the control group, cells were treated with scrambled non-targetingsiRNA (Dharmacon, Lafayette, Colo.; catalogue no. D-001810-10). Cellswere transfected following the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly,cells were seeded 1 day before transfection in Dulbecco's modifiedEagle's medium that was supplemented with 2% fetal calf serum withoutantibiotics. Targeting or non-targeting siRNA was mixed withLipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) in Opti-MEMmedium (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) for 20 minutes at roomtemperature and then added to the cell culture medium at a finalconcentration of 40 nmol/liter. The cells were incubated at 37° C. for 6hours, and the medium was changed to normal growth medium (1% fetal calfserum) for an additional 42 hours. The concentration of fetal calf serumwas then increased to 2%, and the cells were cultured for an additional24 hours.

The experimental procedure and methodology for sAC knockdown in LNCaPcells using adenovirus-driven transcription with shRNA were adapted froma previously described protocol (Rinne et al., J. Muscle Res. Cell.Motil., 27: 413-421 (2006)). In particular, the shRNA adenovirus vectorswere constructed using the AdEasy adenoviral vector system. ThepAd-Track-CMV shuttle vector was used to insert the murine U6 promoterand the anti-sAC-directed shRNA sequence as a double-strandedoligonucleotide using the BglII and KpnI restriction sites. The pmU6provector, which contains the murine U6 snRNA promoter, served as atemplate. To produce shRNA-encoding vectors, the U6 promoter and thehairpin construct were fused using a universal U6 5-primer and a3-primer that included the siRNA targeting the rat sAC mRNA sequence(GenBank Accession No. NM_021684.1; boldface) and complementary U6promoter sequences (italic):

(SEQ ID NO: 10) 5-GGGGTACCAAAAAAGTGGAAAGTGGAACGAAAGCA TCTCTTGAA TGCTTTCGTTCCACTTTCCAC AAACAAGGCTTTTCTCCAAG-3.The underlined sequence corresponds to the hairpin loop. This sequencewas effective in inhibiting human sAC expression/sAC protein productioneven though homology is not 100%. A randomized sequence (scrambled) thatwas based on SEQ ID NO: 9 served as a control. Recombinant adenovirusplasmids were generated by homologous recombination betweenpAd-Track-sh-sAC and pAd-Easy1 in E. coli to produce the recombinantviruses. The recombinant viruses were propagated in HEK293 cells andrecovered after several freeze-thaw cycles. The cells were infectedusing 10⁶ viral particles/mL of culture medium.

Both knockdown methods equally reduced the expression of the 50 kDa sACisoform by ≥80%, as shown in FIG. 3A. Similar to pharmacologicalinhibition of sAC with KH7, both methods of sAC knockdown significantlysuppressed the proliferation of LNCaP cells (reduction of cell numbersfrom 6.37×10⁵ to 3.25×10⁵ under siRNA treatment and to 3.56×10⁵ undershRNA treatment), induced LDH release, and led to caspase-3 cleavage, asshown in FIGS. 3B-3D. In contrast, treatment with scrambled siRNA orshRNA had no effect on these parameters.

These results demonstrate a method of inhibiting proliferation ofprostate cancer cells by inhibiting sAC gene expression/sAC proteinproduction.

EXAMPLE 4

This example demonstrates that inhibition of sAC expression/sAC proteinproduction leads to cell cycle arrest.

To understand the mechanisms responsible for the anti-proliferativeeffect of sAC inhibition, cell cycle analysis was performed usingFACS-based cell cycle analysis. Specifically, LNCaP cells were fixedwith 70% alcohol, stained with propidium iodide, and treated with RNase(BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.). DNA content was analyzed using aFACSCALIBUR™ flow cytometer (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.) andFLOWJO™ software.

In LNCaP cells, pharmacologic or genetic suppression of sAC activitysignificantly increased the percentage of cells in G2-phase andsubsequently reduced the percentage of cells in G1-phase, suggesting thedevelopment of cell cycle arrest at the G2/M checkpoint, as shown inFIGS. 4A-4C. Further kinetic analysis of cell cycle arrest progressionrevealed that the percentage of cells in G2-phase started to rise 12hours after treatment with the sAC inhibitor and reached a maximal valueat 24 hours, as shown in FIG. 4D. In contrast, cleavage of caspase-3first appeared after 24 hours. Therefore, apoptosis appears to be aresult, rather than a cause, of the cell cycle arrest.

To investigate how sAC controls the G2/M transition, the expression ofvarious cyclins and CDK1 was examined via Western blot as describedabove using the following primary antibodies: CDK1, phospho-CDK1, cyclinB1, cyclin D1, cyclin D3, and cyclin E2. Expression of cyclin B1 andCDK1 (both the phosphorylated and dephosphorylated forms) weresignificantly suppressed by treatment with KH7, as evidenced by areduction of optical band density expressed as a ratio to actin banddensity by 66% (cyclin B1), 64% (CDK1) and 78% (phospho-CDK1) fromcontrol levels. Similar effects were found after sAC knockdown:reduction by 70% (cyclin B1), 75% (CDK1) and 78% (phospho-CDK1) fromcontrol levels, as shown in FIG. 4E. In contrast, expression of cyclinD1, cyclin D3, and cyclin E2, the proteins responsible for the G1/Stransition, were not altered by sAC inhibition, as shown in FIG. 4F.Therefore, these data support the specific role of sAC in controllingthe G2/M transition.

PKA and exchange protein activated by cAMP (EPAC) are two majordownstream targets of cAMP. Therefore, the potential role of theseproteins in sAC-dependent proliferation control was investigated. Therole of PKA was investigated first by applying the PKA-specificactivator N⁶-benzoyl-cAMP. Treatment with this compound had no effect onproliferation in control cells or in cells treated with the sACinhibitor KH7, as shown in FIGS. 5A-5C. Cells also were treated with twostructurally different PKA inhibitors, the ATP-binding site inhibitorH-89 (3 μmol/L) and the cAMP-binding site inhibitor RpcAMP (100 μmol/L).Treatment with these inhibitors had no effect on the proliferation,cytotoxicity or distribution of the cell population within the cellcycle, as shown in FIGS. 5A-5C.

To test the role of EPAC in proliferation control, the effects ofinhibition of sAC on EPAC activity in LNCaP cells was examined. To tracethe EPAC activity, the expression of an active form of Rap1, GTP-boundRap1, was analyzed by Western blot as described above using ananti-Rap1A primary antibody (Jena Bioscience, Jena, Germany). sACinhibition with KH7 significantly depleted Rap1-GTP, whereas treatmentwith its inactive analogue, KH7.15, had no effect, as shown in FIG. 5D.Similarly, inhibition of sAC suppressed the phosphorylation of B-Raf, adownstream kinase activated by Rap1, as demonstrated via Western blotusing phospho-B-Raf, and B-Raf primary antibodies (Cell Signaling,Frankfurt, Germany). Analyzing optical band density expressed as a ratioto actin band density did not reveal any significant effect of KH7treatment on expression of Rap1 (0.81+0.07 vs. 0.79+0.01 in control,n=6) or B-Raf (1.02+0.04 vs. 1.13+0.06 in control, n=8).

Treatment with a selective EPAC activator, 8-pCPT, reversed the effectof KH7 on Rap1-GTP expression, as shown in FIG. 5E. Further analysisrevealed that treatment with the EPAC activator prevented the decreasein cell proliferation, LDH release, and the cell cycle block induced bysAC inhibition.

These results evidence that sAC controls the cell cycle andproliferation in an EPAC/Rap1-dependent, PKA-independent manner.

All references, including publications, patent applications, andpatents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the sameextent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicatedto be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entiretyherein.

The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and “at least one” andsimilar referents in the context of describing the invention (especiallyin the context of the following claims) are to be construed to coverboth the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein orclearly contradicted by context. The use of the term “at least one”followed by a list of one or more items (for example, “at least one of Aand B”) is to be construed to mean one item selected from the listeditems (A or B) or any combination of two or more of the listed items (Aand B), unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted bycontext. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing”are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, butnot limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of valuesherein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referringindividually to each separate value falling within the range, unlessotherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated intothe specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methodsdescribed herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwiseindicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The useof any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”)provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the inventionand does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unlessotherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construedas indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice ofthe invention.

Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, includingthe best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention.Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to thoseof ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. Theinventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations asappropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practicedotherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, thisinvention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subjectmatter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicablelaw. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in allpossible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unlessotherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

1. A method of inhibiting proliferation of prostate cancer cells, whichmethod comprises contacting prostate cancer cells with a substance thatinhibits that activity of soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) proteinselected from a small interfering RNA (siRNA) and a short hairpin RNA(shRNA), whereupon proliferation of the prostate cancer cells isinhibited. 2.-3. (canceled)
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein thesubstance that inhibits the activity of the sAC protein is an siRNA thatspecifically targets a gene encoding the sAC protein.
 5. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the substance that inhibits the activity of the sACprotein is administered to a male prostate cancer subject.
 6. A methodfor diagnosing prostate cancer in a male subject, which methodcomprises: (a) obtaining a sample of cells from the prostate of a malesubject, (b) assaying the sample for expression of the sAC gene orproduction of the sAC protein, and (c) comparing the level of the sACgene expression or the sAC protein production in the sample to acontrol, wherein overexpression of the sAC gene or overproduction of thesAC protein in the sample as compared to the control is indicative ofprostate cancer in the male subject.
 7. A method for selecting atreatment option for a prostate cancer subject, which method comprises:(a) obtaining a sample of prostate cancer cells from a prostate cancersubject, (b) assaying the sample for expression of the sAC gene orproduction of the sAC protein, (c) comparing the level of the sAC geneexpression or the sAC protein production in the sample to a control, (d)prognosticating the prostate cancer in the subject based on thecomparison performed in (c), (e) selecting a treatment option for thesubject based on the subject's prognosis in (d), and (f) providing thetreatment option to the subject.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein thesample of cells is obtained via biopsy, tissue excision, or fine needleaspiration (FNA).
 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the sample isassayed for sAC gene expression.
 10. The method of claim 6, wherein thesample is assayed for sAC protein production.
 11. The method of claim 7,wherein prognosticating the prostate cancer in the subject comprisescalculating a Gleason score and/or determining the prostate cancer stagefor the sample.
 12. The method of claim 7, wherein the treatment optionis active surveillance, surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy,chemotherapy, biologic therapy, bisphosphonate therapy, monoclonalantibody therapy, cryosurgery, high-intensity focused ultrasound, protonbeam radiation therapy, or any combination of the foregoing treatmentoptions.
 13. The method of claim 7, wherein the sample of cells isobtained via biopsy, tissue excision, or fine needle aspiration (FNA).14. The method of claim 7, wherein the sample is assayed for sAC geneexpression.
 15. The method of claim 7, wherein the sample is assayed forsAC protein production.
 16. The method of claim 5, wherein the prostatecancer cells in the male cancer subject are characterized byoverexpression of the sAC gene or overproduction of the sAC protein. 17.The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises treatment ofthe subject with surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy,chemotherapy, biologic therapy, bisphosphonate therapy, monoclonalantibody therapy, cryosurgery, high-intensity focused ultrasound, protonbeam radiation therapy, or any combination of the foregoing treatmentoptions.
 18. The method of claim 1, which further comprises: (a)obtaining a sample of cells from the prostate of a male subject, (b)assaying the sample for nuclear expression of the soluble adenylylcyclase (sAC) protein, (c) determining the percentage of sAC proteinpositive nuclei in the sample, and (d) comparing the percentage of sACprotein positive nuclei in the sample to the percentage of sAC proteinpositive nuclei in a control sample, wherein the substance that inhibitsthe activity of the sAC protein is administered to a male prostatecancer subject determined to have an increased percentage of sAC proteinpositive nuclei compared to the control sample.
 19. The method of claim18, wherein nuclear expression of the sAC protein is determined with ananti-sAC antibody that binds to an epitope comprising the amino acidsequence of SEQ ID NO: 9.